INDIAN DYNASTIES

CULTURAL SYMBOLS

Meditation

The Indian Rishis attributed great importance to culture and stressed on the need for the development of the inner faculties of a human being. They discovered various methods of feeding, resting and revitalizing the body. After countless years of experience and experiments they developed special systems of exercises for increasing the strength, purity and power of all the faculties of man.

Meditating Yogi  

The Rishis claimed that God could be attained through meditation because then the mind eventually surrenders to a thought, which is subjected to long periods of concentration without any interruptions. In meditation, the performer attains a state of communion with his deity. 

The rishis also preach that for sublimation and evolution, every person must meditate on God at least three times a day. They associate these times with the three times of the Sun. When one gets up from sleep, he must pay homage to his deity or the rising Sun to prepare for the day’s chores. He must respect the mid-day Sun when he prepares to eat meals for his sustenance and the setting Sun to express his gratitude to his Creator.

for the successful completion of his day’s work. They also proclaim that the most auspicious time for meditation is 3 am every day, because during this time, Mother Nature is the most serene. It is called Brahma Muhurta.

In order to attain spiritual progress, one must try to dissociate from worldly pleasures and attachments. Hence they advocated that meditation is supposed to be performed at a predetermined place, time and location for accelerated concentration. To make this easier they constructed temples, which are highly energized holy places.

In India, saints and sages have been meditating from time immemorial and they can be still found in many holy cities and riverbanks. Most of them give up their food and clothes to attain moksha or everlasting life. Saint Vivekananda is said to have meditated in the Rock Temple in Kanyakumari, the Southern tip of India for peace. Nowadays even common Indians have started to make a beeline to Ashrams which propose to teach them meditation and concentration to attain peace in life.    

Yogis or Rishis

In the Bhagavad Gita, Shree Krishna teaches Arjun that   a “YOGI” is one who is joined to God. The path that leads to ideals is that of a yogi who consciously and deliberately progresses towards divinity, which is the purpose of creation. With yogic advance his mind gets purified and he later becomes a Siddha Saint.

An ascetic is one who undergoes voluntary sacrifices to obtain celestial powers, like going without food or clothes for days, standing on ones head for hours together, sleeping on a bed of nails, piercing ones body with sharp objects, etc. 

All those who practice meditation, concentration and purification of their mind and body senses are real Yogis. There can be no higher state than this because they are nearer to God by way of worshipping him.   In worldly terms they have long hairs, and a flourishing beard and wear saffron or white or black robes. 

The Sacrificial Fire

Almost most of the Indian religions worship fire as a benevolent element. From time immemorial the sacrificial fire has been an important item of our culture. Every function, ceremony, worship or Puja starts with the worship of the fire in some form or the other. Most of the Indian women perform a small worship of the deity in their house with a special “ARTI” of a small deepam or lamp and incense sticks. The importance of fire worship is mentioned in all the Vedas and religious books.

Some modern thoughts regard the Fire Worship as a primitive practice of campfire. But scientists have established that performing a small domestic “havan” or fire worship with ghee and other specified ingredients produces purifying gases like ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, formaldehyde, butapropiolactone and acetylene which boost up the spirit of the performer and the surroundings.

Rishis perform Havan in the ashrams to purify it and give it an atmosphere of good health and prosperity. Fire worship is done in India, for prosperity, health, victory, thanksgiving, good crop, bountiful rain, etc. Twigs and dried leaves of some special trees, rice, wheat, til seeds, guggal, camphor, raisins, coconut, vermilion and turmeric are used for the fire worship. Guggal and Camphor are supposed to be good germ-killers. The burning of these items in the fire along with the addition of pure ghee and the reciting of Mantras produces beneficial gases according to the Rishis. They prescribe the morning or evening as the ideal time for performing this worship. But the Tantriks prefer to perform their Yagna at midnight, nearest to a cremation ground!

Deepam or Lamp

The Rishis of India worship FLAME or JYOTI or DEEPAM, as being the purest of the pure because it consumes all impurities but yet remains pure by itself.

A lamp is an earthen saucer like container, filled with ghee or butter with a twisted cotton tape immersed in it. It is lighted in every Hindu household and temple in India. The cotton tape keeps sucking the ghee to yield a cool bright light, a flame.  In nature the flame is considered to be the source of infinite energy of positive currents. If even number of lamps is kept side by side, they cancel each other’s radiation and become harmful. This explains the use of odd number of lamps for worship.

Great emphasis is also placed on performing “ARTI” in India during worship of any deity. The arti flame is moved around the idol for the devotees to have a good look of the deity, then the devotees put out their palms to receive the arti aura, when their body’s energy rises to the level of the flame according to researchers. The flame is also considered a good germ killer.  

Tree worship

Trees are considered to be friends of man as they provide him shelter, food, fuel, and oxygen for good living. In the Rigveda and the Atharveda some trees are deified, as “Vriksha Devta” which are considered to be holy and the people ought to worship them. The Pipal, Banyan, Goolar, Amla, Vilva, Sandal, Neem, Mango, and Babool are the trees that are worshipped in India.

It is said that Gods and the souls of pious ancestors rest on the branches of the Pipal tree and so it is not a domestic tree, instead it is grown in temples and inns where people come to worship. The Pineal gland’s secretions of humans make their brains alert and alive. The chemical found in this secretion is also found in the Pipals’ juice according to scientists and hence it is called the Bodhi Vriksha.

The Banyan tree is of specialty because it sends sap from above to the earth. This resembles the functioning of the world, as it also needs sap or energy for its survival from above, God. Married Hindu ladies worship the Banyan tree for a long and happy married life.

Lord Shiva patronizes the Vilva tree as the only tree, which has three, leaves that sprout together like a trident. The juice of the leaves is a relief to the Diabetics, and the pulp of the fruit is supposed to stop diarrhea. The fruit called bel was a favorite of Lord Shiva.
Another tree is the Asoka tree which is known to relieve the worries of the persons sitting under its shade. Sita is said to have been seated under an Asoka tree in Lanka during her captivity.

The Hindus also worship the Kadam tree, because Shree Krishna used to sit and play under this tree.
Rishi Chyavan patronized the Amla tree for rejuvenating properties.

Tulsi worship

According to popular Indian belief, Wherever Tulsi is planted, the place becomes, sanctified as a place of pilgrimage and the sepoys of Lord Death dare not enter that place. In India, the Tulsi is regarded as the most sacred plant. It is a much- branched erect bushy plant of about 4 feet height. Its leaves are aromatic and they have minute glands. The flowers are purple in small clusters and the seeds are yellow are red.

According to scientists the place containing tulsi plant becomes pollution free. The oil of the leaves is capable of destroying bacteria and insects. The leaves have mercury traces and are hence nowadays used in cancer curing Ayurvedic medicines. The juice of the leaves cures bronchitis and stomach upsets. The leaves’ paste cure all skin diseases and the decoction of the leaves cures common cold.

Thick branches of Tulsi are dried and cut into beads to make rosary beads, are else they are made into necklaces which the devotees wear with faith. The ancient Rishis have ordained that if a ghee lamp or incense stick or flowers are not available for performing puja then Tulsi leaves can be used and this explains the importance of the worship of tulsi in India.

Betel Leaf (Paan)

During worship or rituals, leaves from some select trees are used as essential accessories, but among them all the Betel Leaf enjoys a place of pride in India. In Hindu weddings, a betel leaf is tucked into the headgear of the bride and the groom. The use of betel leaf is considered as a noble trait and on all auspicious celebrations, betel leaf has become a symbolic item denoting freshness and prosperity.

The Skanda Purana says that the Betel Leaf was obtained during the ocean- churning by the Gods. The use of Betel Leaf in India is mentioned in the great epics, The Ramayana and the Mahabharatha as well as in Buddhist and Jain literatures.

Paan has rich herbal properties. It is invigorating and energizing, a killer of germs and bacteria and an eliminator of cold. Before eating a paan, the stalk has to be cut, the edges have to be trimmed and the veins have to be scrapped because they may damage the brain. There are whitish and blackish betel leaves. The black variety is said to be constipative and the white one eliminates cold and is a digestive.

Coconut (Nariyel) in rituals

In India, for success and prosperity on all occasions, the beginning is done with the breaking of a sanctified coconut. All religious functions and rituals start with the worship of the coconut since it is regarded as the symbolic GANESH, the deity who helps in the successful completion of any work undertaken.

Sage Vishwamitra is said to be the creator of coconut. Its hard kernel inspires one to do hard work for attaining success. People get strength and improved eyesight by eating the kernel. The sick and the elderly find its water nourishing and ladies apply its oil for luxurious hair. It has glucose, phosphorous and carbohydrates in good measures and so it is good for Diabetics. Germs can’t penetrate its hard kernel so it remains intact for months together.

Ancient Indian doctors used to burn its outer shell to prepare tooth powder, eyebrow creams and ointments for burns. Every inch of the coconut plant is very beneficial to humans. Hence Indians consider it a good omen to receive or give coconut fruits as gifts. It is also called Shreephal because it denotes prosperity.

Lotus Flower

Lotus is a very important symbol of Indian cultural heritage. It is mentioned in all the Hindu scriptures because it is very sacred to the Gods. God Brahma and Buddha are depicted as seated on a Lotus flower. Lord Vishnu holds a lotus in one of his hands and Goddess Lakshmi also holds a Lotus flower. The Lotus is an appropriate symbol of detachment from the surroundings, be it good or bad.

The Indian Poets have used the Lotus as a simile in praise of the feet of the Gods and Goddesses. All the Vedas sing in praise of the Lotus. In the Yogasastra, the six Chakras are depicted with the Lotus as the base. According to the Mahayana sect of Buddhism, all the souls originate from the Lotus.

In India, the Muslim rulers used the Lotus in their architecture, an influence of Hindu architecture since the Muslims have no special significance for the Lotus. The dome of the Taj Mahal resembles an upside-closed lotus, resting on its petals. The lotus blooms with the morning light and closes its petals when the sun goes down. So the sages accepted lotus as a unique symbol of unfolding the spiritual qualities of man with the advent of light.

AUM

According to the Hindu Yogis in India, inhaling air generates SH-Sh sound while exhaling is associated with HM-HM and enunciated that SOHAM is the keynote of life. Later they discovered that sound O was guttural and sound AM touched palate and so told that AUM encompassed man’s total existence.
The Aum sound is vibrating throughout the cosmos and it has three manifestations; those of creations, preservations and destruction. Every time a person utters any letter or word, he puts into operation any of these three virtues of AUM. The vibratory cosmic energy- AUM does not maintain by food alone, but man’s body battery. This invisible power flows through the human body and controls its actions when uttered properly with reverence and concentration.

Tilak or Dot or Bindi

The starting point of all shapes and forms is a point. Geometry describes the point as one, which has no dimensions, but it still exists.  A dot or point is the seed of language expressed by sound, so it is the finale of the highest attainment.

A dot or point is the abode of Shiva and Shakthi.  Ancient Indian had an indomitable urge to communicate his thoughts and so symbols were developed. Similar group of men and women adopted different types of Tilak or linear symbols, which were further, segregated fro man and woman to wear on their body to denote their sect and ideology.

Naamam

Circular Bindi worn by Indian women

A deep study of human anatomy reveals that the forehead is the best place for applying Tilak. Rishis declared that the junction of the nose-root and the meeting point of the eyebrows is the most sensitive part of the body. The Agya- chakra, or Wheel of wisdom, is located here and so is a vulnerable spot, which must be kept, warm and protected. 

The most popular forms used or a dot, or a “U” shape or a trident shape or 3 horizontal lines with a dot at the center called Tripund on the forehead and forearms. The wearers are advised by the rishis to use a mixture of vermillion, lime, turmeric, saffron, musk, agar, sandal and ash for men and sindur or vermillion on their skull-center for the women, to provide warmth to the pineal and pituitary glands located near the Thalamus.

The bindi is declared to be very helpful for the good health of the brain, eyes, ears and the nose because these applications maintain a fine pull on the veins and nerves underneath the forehead, nose-root and forearm’s skin to monitor proper flow of blood. The forebrain controls the decision making part of the brain. In acupressure methods it is considered to be the most sensitive part of the body responsible for alertness and hence the use of Bindi for the forehead is justified.
 

Swastik

Mostly the business community considers the Swastik symbol as the symbol of all- round prosperity in India. The root of SWASTIK is SU+US; SU means benefic and US means existence; so whosoever desires to have glory, prosperity, progress and success is advised to invoke the Swastika Yantra.

The Aryans adopted the Swastik as a symbol for the good of humanity. Then the Hindus added some more arms to the Swastik to denote happiness in married life and worldly successes.

The sides of the Swastik arms must remain on the right side, moving or stationary for positive vibrations and benevolent results. BOVIS is a measure of the energy levels that surround men or materials and the Swastik is supposed to have a formidable energy of one million bovis, but in an inverse direction, the results become negative.

Indian Siddhants say that the center of the Swastik represents the uterus, the origin point of the Universe, the vertical line, Shiva and the horizontal line, the female organ. Their cross forms the origin and evolution of the whole world.

Certain shapes represent deities and when a devotee invokes the deity through the symbol, his thoughts are concentrated and good results are got and one such omnipotent symbol is the Swastik, which is widely used in India.  

Rudraksha Mala

It is a common sight in India, to see saints and rishis wearing small ball-like seeds in a string around their neck. They are called Rudraksha Mala and a visit to any holy place in India, can take you to shops that sell these bead-necklaces in all colors and prices.

Rudraksha is the seed of a fruit of a rare species of a tree found in Karnataka and in the Konkan area. It is roundish with a cellular demarcation and has a central bore. Each seed may have 1 to 21 cells and the seeds with one cell are of great sanctity value. The most common variety is the seeds with 5 cellular divisions.

It has a beneficial property of attracting healthy vibrations and so saints and rishis wear them as necklaces. The Lord Shiva is also found to wear one such thing in his neck. A real rudraksha seed shall sink in water and so fake ones can be differentiated easily.

Its aromatic property helps a devotee to get into deep meditation easily. Rudraksha seeds are not supposed to be rubbed often   because then they lose their charm properties. It should be worn on the neck, threaded by gold, silver or woolen threads, so that it remains in gentle touch with the body, which increases the body’s immunity.

The rudraksha thread protects the wearer from lightings, accidents and brings him good luck according to Indian saints and rishis. People with positive currents of energy should wear it on their right hand and those with negative energy current on their left hands, for good results.  

Sacred Thread

The Brahmanas and some sects of artisans wear the Sacred Thread as a symbol of their holiness when compared to the common man. They are considered to be next to God. In India, a tuft of hair in the back of the head, a rosary in the hand, a prominent bindi on the forehead and a sacred thread along the torso are considered to be some of the important symbols of holiness among the Hindus.

The sacred thread consists of hand -spun yarn. Three equal lengths of the yarn are twisted to form one length. After a sacred thread ceremony the person is given a sacredness status. He is supposed to wear it as a cross-belt on his body.

The three twisted yarns represent the Trinity of God, or the three virtues of life namely; pious living, imperious living and vicious living. The 3*3 also represents the Navagraha or the nine planets and also the nine outlets of the human body. The threads are bright white and so they also add to the aura and moral strength.

In India, the Zoroastrians wear such a sacred thread around their lumbar region. According to their belief, the belt keeps their lumbar region vertebras   in position and gives proper alignment.  

Kalash (Sacred Pot)

Kalash

In ancient times, the rishis of India placed copper pots atop temple pinnacles to escape the calamity of lightning. But fungus developed on the pots and reduced their efficiency and so they gold-enameled the pots with gold.

The Rishis wanted water all year round to quench their thirst, so they developed a container- a Kalash and they were happy that they could enshrine God Varun in the Kalash and thus the worship of Varun started with the worshipping of the Kalash. The Rishis also ordained that every ceremony should start with the worship of the Kalash.

According to Indian mythology, The mouth of the Kalash represents Vishnu, the throat - Lord shiva, Lord Brahma adores the base and at the belly all Goddesses are established and thus in a small pot they established the presence of all gods and goddesses.

In India, on most of the ceremonial occasions, a pot filled with clean water, with fresh mango or betel leaves placed at the mouth and a coconut placed on top is kept near the entrance. It is also decorated with Swastik symbol and other ornamentations.

Ringing of bells

Centuries ago in India, the Gurukul system of education- residential Institutions for overall development of students, were situated in forests away from the crowded townships. There the insiders were constantly under beastly attacks and so bells were rung on the sighting of deadly animals to frighten them off. The metallic sounds were also found to attack bacteria and germs through scientific research.

To create very effective sound, a bell was found to be the best device since when it is made of 8 different metals, it produced the most resounding echo, which can spread in all directions. In India, regular rhythmic ringing of heavy and light weight bells has been made compulsory during the time of worship in most of the temples, so as to invoke the deity’s blessings.

Research has proved that that the sound of a standard bell can cure physical as well as mental diseases. Loud sounds of the bell or the blowing of the conch, gets 27 cubic feet of air in an area of 1220 sq.ft, purified and it is taken to be the most economical way of purifying the environment.

 For worship, blowing of conch, a type of shell, bells of different dimensions, the beating of metallic-alloy plates, Jhang, Majira, etc are very common in India.  

Conch shells (Shankh)

The Conch Shell or Shankh was obtained as a gift from the ocean - churning by the Gods. The spiral formation inside the conch -shell is symbolic of infinite space. All naturally occurring conch shells yield cosmic sounds, which can be heard by holding the shell close to one’s ears.

God Vishnu accepted an attractive conch shell with its mouth on the right side, and another with a left-side opening adores the hand of Goddess Lakshmi.

The blowing of the conch shell heralds important events and auspicious celebrations and calls all the faithful for the worship of the deity. On the battlefield of Kurushetra in the Mahabharatha, every morning the blowing of the shankh, symbolized the starting of the war.  Every great King and Army- Chief had his own precious Shankh or conch shell.  

Vastu shastra - Indian astrology

(For more imformation click on the link)

In India, Vaastu Shastra, the details about the different dimensions of buildings, temples, forts, townships, houses, etc is a great emerging science in the field of architecture. Architecture is not just raising buildings to limit space according to Indian Rishis. It is a form of science where, constructions are made in harmony with the laws of Creation. A particular proportion of materials, a combination of colors, a particular timing to start the construction is some of the things to consider giving good benefits for the occupier of the construction to be erected.

The principles of VastuShastra are based on physical geography, rainfall, isobars, winds, ocean currents, natural vegetation, climate, water resources, mineral resources, population, etc. Vastu Shastra is basically the utilization of living space so that it harmonizes the person with the elements by working in harmony with the earth’s magnetic currents. 

In India, as per Vaastu Shastra, North and the East are the most auspicious. Plot of square, rectangle or trapezium can be selected but not a triangular one as this may block the energy waves. Northeast is the air zone, so the drawing room can be located in this direction. The main entrance or water resources of a house can also be located in the North- East Zone. The South- East side is dedicated to fire, so kitchen can be in the Southeast or Northwest but not in the Southwest as this may bring sickness to the members.
According to Indian Rishis, the following of the Vaastu Shastra principles brings good-fortune or at the least averts any bad-luck for the occupants.

 

THE STATES AND UNION TERRITORIES

OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL FACTS

TIME AND MONEY

The Indian rupee is divided into 100 paise. But there is the common problem of short-change. India Standard time is 5- 1/2 hour ahead of the Greenwich Meridian time. Despite its size, India has a single time zone. 

INFORMATION

The Indian Newspaper industry is flourishing, printing the staggering figure of around 22,000 newspapers, of which around 1800 are dailies. Some 4000 are in English and the second most popular language in Newspaper -reading is Hindi. The principal dailies include, The Hindu, published in many cities in the north and the south. The Indian Express is also quite good. The Times of India comes closely next in terms of readerships.

These newspapers provide all-India and local news, views and gossip as well as entertainment news and sports items. Currently the big press barons include the Birlas, who owns the Hindustan Times, and the Goenkas of Madras, who own the Indian Express.

Magazines are also making big business in India. General news and a good read are found in: India Today, The Week, Sunday, The Illustrated Weekly of India, Women's Era, Femina, etc. A number of Business magazines like Business India, Intelligent Investor, Dalal Street Journal, Money Market, etc have cropped out satisfying the Business minds. With the advent of the computer era, many computer related magazines have come up and notable among them include the Data Quest, PC Quest, Big Byte, Chip, PC @ home. Then there is a deluge of Film magazines full of Bitchy gossips and interviews. For children also a number of comics and monthly and weekly magazines have been introduced.

LANGUAGES

India, according to a recent census has 1,652 dialects! Needless to say that most of them are only spoken dialects. The principal languages with rich literary heritage are:

Assamese, Bengali, English, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.

The earliest language of the Indians was that of the Indus valley civilization and only some characters of their script is available now and hence it could not be deciphered properly. The four major early language groups from early India are

	The Dravidian
	Sino-Tibetan
	Austric and
	Indo-Aryan

The Vedas belong to the Indo Aryan languages. Most of the Indian languages have their alphabets derived from the Brahmi script. The Dravidian languages include Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu and Kannada and these evolved during the 7th century AD. Tribals like the Bhils, Gonds and Todas who belong to the hills and forests have their own local dialects without any symbolic representations.

The Austric languages are the Munda and Kol speeches of central and eastern India.

The Sino-Tibetan languages include Ahom, the language of the Assamese rulers and Khamti now spoken by some tribes in the northeastern border of India.  

The inhabitants off the offshore islands of India the Andaman and Nicobar islands speak Andamanese, a quite separate language and Nicobarese, a branch of the Austric branch of languages.

The Indo-Aryan languages are spoken by approximately 74 % of the Indian populace, the Dravidian by about 24%, the Austric by 1.4% and the Sino-Tibetan by 0.9%.

RATIO OF LANGUAGES SPOKEN THROUGHOUT INDIA

STATES	Percentage
Assamese	1.56
Bengali	8.30
Gujarati	4.85
Hindi	40.22
Kannada	3.91
Kashmiri	0.01
Konkani	0.21
Malayalam	3.62
Manipuri	0.15
Marathi	7.45
Nepali	0.25
Oriya	3.35
Punjabi	2.79
Sanskrit	0.01
Sindhi	0.25
Tamil	6.32
Telugu	7.87
Urdu	5.18
Miscellaneous Languages	3.71

THE INDIAN RAILWAYS

The Indian railways have found its place in records as the biggest employer in the whole world. Hence it has been allocated a special department in the Union Cabinet and also boasts of a separate budget plan. A train journey becomes an essential part when one plans to travel throughout India. There are around 65,000 kms of railways in the country. India's first train steamed off from Bombay to Thane on April 16th, 1853, for its 34 kms long journey. The credit for the well -laid out Railway plan goes to the British, though they did it for their own comfort and monetary benefits. India's first Super-train was the Rajadhani Express running from Delhi to Calcutta at 130 kph. The Shatabdi Express zipped equally fast between Delhi and Bhopal, via Agra and Gwalior. Now its routes have spread out throughout India . Now steam engines and narrow gauges are slowly becoming history. The Railway stations of Bombay, Calcutta and Lucknow are especially grand with the Victorian style built by the British. On the trains everything from the morning cup of coffee to a full afternoon meal is available under order. There are three main classes of tickets: air-conditioned, first class and second-class and they in turn have sub-divisions. Second class has two and three -tier sleepers.

INDIAN DRESSES

There are a rich variety of clothes worn in various parts of the country. The clothing of a particular region depends upon the climatic conditions of the region. The most popular dress for the women of the country is the sari. It is a single pieced of clothing, usually five to six meters in length. There are various styles of wearing a sari. In the northern stare of Punjab women wear "Salwar and Kameez" which is very comfortable. A "Churidhar" has a tighter fitting and is worn with a "Kurta". Both women and men wear "Lungi". Like the sari it is also a single piece of clothing worn around the thighs. A "Dhoti" is longer than the lungi and is pulled up between the legs. "Leghna" is worn by the women-folk of rural areas. It is like a skirt. Both men and women in the urban areas have started wearing western dresses these days.

STATISTICAL FACTS ABOUT INDIA

STATES	CAPITAL	AREA (sq.km)	LITERACY (%)	NO. OF DISTS
Andhra pradesh	Hyderabad	275,345	61	3
Arunachal Pradesh	Itanagar	83,743	41.20	15
Assam	Dispur	78,438	53.42	23
Bihar	Patna	1,73,877	47.53	55
Chatisgarh	Raipur	135,194	34	16
Delhi	Delhi	1,483	82	1
Goa	Panaji	3,702	76.96	02
Gujarat	Gandhinagar	1,96,124	70	25
Haryana	Chandigarh	44,212	69	19
Himachal Pradesh	Shimla	55,780	77	12
Jammu& Kashmir	Srinagar	3,08,112	54	14
Karnataka	Bangalore	1,91,792	67	30
Kerala	Trivandrum	38,863	93	14
Madhya Pradesh	Bhopal	4,43,446	64	45
Maharastra	Mumbai	3,08,121	77	33
Manipur	Imphal	22,336	69	09
Meghalaya	Shillong	22, 429	50	07
Mizoram	Aizwal	21,081	95	03
Nagaland	Kohima	16,579	61.30	08
Orissa	Bhubaneshwar	1,55,707	64	30
Pondicherry	Pondicherry	492	74.90	4
Punjab	Chandigarh	50,394	70	17
Rajasthan	Jaipur	3,42,239	61	32
Sikkim	Gangtok	7,096	56.53	04
Tamilnadu	Chennai	1,30,058	73	29
Tripura	Agartala	10,486	60.40	04
Uttar Pradesh	Lucknow	2,94,411	57	70
Uttaranchal	Dehradun	55,845	72.28	13
Jharkhand	Ranchi	79,714	54	18
West Bengal	Kolkata	88,752	69	19
UNION TERRITORIES
Andaman& Nicobar	Port Blair	8,249	81.18	2
Chandigarh	Chandigarh	114	81.76	1
Dadra& Nagar Haveli	Silvassa	491	60.03	1
Daman & Diu	Daman	112	81.09	2
Lakshadweep	Kavaratti	32	81.49	1

GOVERNMENT

India, a Union of States, is a Sovereign Democratic Republic, governed by a Constitution, which came into force on the 26th of January 1950.

The Constitution, federal in structure with unitary features, defines the power exercised by the States and the Union. The President of India is the constitutional head of the executive of the Union. He acts according to the advice of the Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head-the real custodian of the executive power- who is responsible to the Parliament consisting of two houses, the Lok sabha and the Rajya Sabha. Parliament and the Supreme court provide a medium of checks and balances on the powers of this executive authority. The Prime Minister and his Cabinet can be removed by a vote of no confidence passed by the House.

The major industry of Delhi is Politics! A session at the Sansad Bhavan is a good valued entertainment and permission for this can be had from the Embassies of various countries located in Delhi or through the High Commission or by means of an MP. Debates and cross-banter are in English and the Indian constitution is loosely based on the West Minister model of the British. 

The Lok sabha has 544 elected members; it sits for eight months in the year and elects its own Speaker. The ruling party draws its Prime Minister and Cabinet from this house. Like the American Senate, membership of Rajya Sabha is by election, except for a dozen appointments by the President and a third of the 245 members retire every two years. It lacks a speaker but has the Vice President as the Chairman. Parliament legislates, amends the Constitution, elects the President and Vice President and must approve a Proclamation of Emergency.

An MLA has as many votes as the number in thousands obtained when the population of his state is divided by the elected membership of his legislature. An MP has as many votes as the number obtained by dividing the total votes assigned to the MLAs by the elected membership of the two houses of Parliament.

The elected members of the two houses of Parliament and of the State Legislative assemblies constitute the Electoral College for the President. Any citizen of India above 35 years, owes allegiance to the constitution and swears by the sovereignty and integrity of India, can contest for the post of President. A President can hold office for 5 years and can seek re-election for any number of subsequent terms. A President can be removed by Parliament only through impeachment for violation of the constitution. The President's residence is called the Rashtrapathi Bhavan. 

The Vice-President, elected by the members of the Parliament discharges the function as Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. He also acts as the President during the absence of the President. The executive power of the Central government is normally vested in the President, who is also the Supreme commander of the three armed forces.

NATIONAL SYMBOLS OF INDIA

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN INDIA

National parks and sanctuaries are administered at the state level and are promoted by them as a tourist attraction, which earns them sufficient revenue to keep the sanctuaries running. 

Most of the sanctuaries provide well are at least optimum accommodation and other facilities but they had to be booked in advance. Some parks even provide modern guest houses. Usually van and jeep rides and also boat trips are arranged to give the visitors a good view of the animals in their natural habitats. Watchtowers and hides are also available.

Some of the notable parks and sanctuaries are listed below.

DACHIGAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

This sanctuary has a scenic valley and a meandering river. Wildlife here includes rare Kashmiri stags, black bears, and musk deers. In recent years the wildlife here have been vastly endangered. It is 22 km by road from Srinagar.It is best to visit it during June- July.

CORBETT NATIONAL PARK

This park in Uttar Pradesh is famous for its tigers. Other wild lives include cheetahs, deer, elephants, leopards, and sloth bears. The park has good scenery with sal and hardwood trees. There are numerous watch towers and daytime photography is allowed. Best time to visit is November to May.

SUNDERBANS WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

This reserve in West Bengal is to the southeast of the city of Calcutta. It contains the mangrove forests of the Gangetic delta. It is an important haven for tigers but it also includes fishing cats and a wide variety of birds. It is accessible by a boat ride only. It can be visited around February- March.

MANAS WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

This area bordering Bhutan is formed by the rivers Manas, Hakua and Beki Rivers and is situated in Assam state. The wildlife includes tigers, buffaloes, elephants, sambhars, swamp deers and langurs. The bodo rebels of Assam have recently used it and consequently most of its infrastructure has been destroyed. Visit it around January- March.

KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK

This park in Assam is famous for its one-horned Rhinos which are almost extinct now but for a few. The park is full of tall grasses and swampy areas. The rhinos can be spotted around the swampy areas, bathing. Egrets and other birds are also accommodated here. It can be visited from February to March.

RANTHAMBORE NATIONAL PARK

Ranthambore or Sawai Madhopur in Rajsthan is smaller in size when compared to most of the parks in India. It is famous for its lake tigers but nowadays the number has dwindled thanks to large-scale poaching in these areas. It is located on the Mumbai- Delhi rail-line and is 160 kms by road from Jaipur. Best time to visit- November to May.

KEOLADEO GHANA BIRD SANCTUARY

This is the best-known bird sanctuary in India, situated in Rajasthan. It is also called Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary and features a large number of migrating birds from Siberia and China, which include herons, storks, cranes and geese. It also houses deers and other wildlife. Visit it around September to February.

SASAN GIR NATIONAL PARK

This Oasis in the deserts of Gujarat is famous for the Asiatic lions, which number around 250. They can be spotted around the lakes and other watering holes. It also includes crocodiles. The park remains closed from mid-May to mid-October.

KANHA NATIONAL PARK

This is one of the spectacular and most exciting parks for wildlife in India and is in Madhya Pradesh. Originally it was conceived to protect the swamp deers also called Barasinghas but now it also includes tigers, chitals, blackbucks, langurs and leopards. The park is closed from July to October.

PERIYAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

This is a large and scenic park in Kerala state built around an artificial lake. It is famous for its large elephant population. Others include the wild dogs, Nilgiri Langurs, otters, tortoise, and hornbills. Best time to visit is around February to May.

VEDANTHANGAL BIRD SANCTUARY

This is situated around 35kms to the south of Chengalpattu in Tamilnadu and is home for a large variety of birds. Cormorants, egrets, herons, storks, ibises, pelicans, grebes and hornbills breed here from October to March. At the peak season of December to January more than 30, 000 birds can be spotted.

CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

This one also known as Koddikarai is situated in Tamilnadu, around 90 kms from Tanjore. This is a wetland area jutting out of the Palk Strait that separates India and Sri Lanka. It is famous for flocks of migratory birds mainly flamingoes. Black bucks, spotted deers and wild pigs are found here. Time to visit: November to January.

MUDANTHURAI TIGER SANCTUARY

This is located in Tamilnadu along its border with Kerala. It mainly consists of tigers but also has chitals, sambhars and lion tailed macaques. But it is extremely difficult to spot the tigers. Best time to visit is between January and March.

ANAMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

This is along the slopes of the western ghat mountains in the border between Tamilnadu and Kerala. It is also known as Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary. It has an area of around 1000 sq Km and houses elephants, gaurs, tigers, panthers, deers, boars, porcupines and wild cats. In its heart lies the Parambiculam Dam, which is of good scenic beauty. The best time to visit this is between February and June.  

 

INDIAN FLORA AND FAUNA

India boasts a wide variety of flora and fauna which are diversified in nature and which depend upon the geography of the region.

FAUNA

There are around 500 varieties of mammals, 2000 species of birds and 30,000 types of insects and a wide variety of fish, amphibians and reptiles are found in the country according to the latest census estimate

Lions are found in the rocky hills and forests of the Gir area of Gujarat, Tigers in the Sunderbans and the Brahmaputra valley. The famous Project Tiger is a scheme financed by the government of India to safeguard the tiger in its habitat in nine selected reserves. Indian Fauna also include the wild ass of Rajasthan, Nilgiri Langur, Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri mongoose and Malaber civer of the southern hills and the spotted deer. Leopards are found in many forests, Wolves roam the open country. Cheetahs are found in the Deccan plateau.

A huge number of snake varieties, lizards and crocodiles account for the reptile count. Snakes include the deadly King cobras to the equally poisonous Kraits. Scorpions and insects are aplenty in this country. Disease carrying mosquitoes and destructive locusts are to be found. Useful insects include the bees, silkworms and the Lac insect.

 Bird-Life in India is rich and colorful. The birds include the beautiful Peacock to the

KING OF ANIMALSTHE
MAJESTIC LION

Bird-Life in India is rich and colorful. The birds include the beautiful Peacock to the Parrots, and thousands of immigrant birds. Other common Indian birds are pheasants, geese ducks, mynahs, parakeets, pigeons, cranes, and hornbills. India now maintains 80 national parks, 441 wildlife sanctuaries and 35 zoological gardens.

FLORA

Thanks to its wide range of climatic conditions, India has a rich variety of vegetation that no other country in this world can boast of. According to the distribution of the flora, India can be classified into, Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Indus Plain, Ganga Plain, Deccan, Malabar and the Andamans.

Indian flora varies from the Western Himalayan and Assamese, from the species of the Indus Plain to those of the gangetic plain, from the Deccan and Malabari to the vegetation of the Andamans. The floral wealth ranges from the Alpine to the temperate thorn, from the coniferous to the evergreen, from scrubs to deciduous forests, from thick tropical jungles to cool temperate woods.

The Western Himalayan region is abound in Chirpine and other conifers deodar, blue pine, spruce, silver fir, and junipers. The Eastern Himalayan region consists of oaks, laurels, maples, rhododendrons, alder, and birch and dwarf willows. The Assam region is full of evergreen forests with lots of bamboo and tall grasses.

The Indus plain supports very scanty vegetation and the Ganges Plain is under cultivation. The Deccan region is full of scrubs and mixed deciduous forests. The Malabar region is under commercial crops like coconut, betel, pepper, coffee and tea. Andaman region is abounding in evergreen and mangrove forests.

MUNNAR TEA PLANTATIONS

India's original vegetation was mainly deciduous forest because of her tropical location. It is unfortunate that the forest cover has been reduced to 13% of the total surface area.

Of the deciduous trees Sal and Teak are the most important. Sal is found in eastern India and it is used for buildings because it is resistant to termites and fire. Deodars, Pines, cedars, firs ands spruce are found in the foothills of the Himalayas. Sandalwood is found in Karnataka and Tamilnadu. Coconut palms are dominant in Kerala.

Crops native to India

Rice, sesame, cotton, safflower, cucumber, eggplant, banana, Mango, pepper, tea, cardamom and citrus fruits.

Crops, which were introduced into India

Wheat, maize, grams, jute, potato, carrot, cabbage, spinach, soyabeans, watermelon, tobacco, mustard, cashew, coffee, rubber, sapota, guava, custard apple, walnut, papaya, apple, pear, pomegranate, litchi, coconut and cinnamon. 

MINERAL RESOURCES

India has a large number of economically useful minerals and they constitute one-quarter of the world's known mineral resources. About two-thirds of its iron deposits lies in a belt along Orissa and Bihar border.

Other haemaite deposits are found in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharastra and Goa. Magnetite iron-ore is found in Tamilnadu, Bihar and Himachal.

India has the world's largest deposits of coal. Bituminous coal is found in Jharia and Bokaro in Bihar and Ranigunj in West Bengal. Lignite coals are found in Neyveli in Tamilnadu.

Next to Russia, India has the largest supply of Manganese. The manganese mining areas are Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra and Bihar-Orissa area. Chromite deposits are found in Bihar, Cuttack district in Orissa, Krishna district in Andhra and Mysore and Hassan in Karnataka. Bauxite deposits are found in western Bihar, southwest Kashmir, Central Tamilnadu, and parts of Kerala, U.P, Maharastra and Karnataka.

India also produces third quarters of the world's mica. Belts of high quality mica are, Bihar, Andhra and Rajasthan. Gypsum reserves are in Tamilnadu and Rajasthan. Nickel ore is found in Cuttack in Bihar and Mayurbanj in Orissa. Ileminite reserves are in Kerala and along the east and the west coastal beaches.

Silimanite reserves are in Sonapahar of Meghalaya and in Pipra in M.P. Copper ore bearing areas are Agnigundala in Andhra, Singhbum in Bihar, Khetri and Dartiba in Rajasthan and parts of Sikkhim and Karnataka.

The Ramagiri field in Andhra, Kolar and Hutti in Karnataka are the important gold mines.

The Panna diamond belt is the only diamond producing area in the country, which covers the districts of Panna, Chatarpur and Satna in Madya Pradesh, as well as some parts of Banda in Uttar Pradesh.

Petroleum deposits are found in Assam and Gujarat. Fresh reserves were located off Bombay. The potential oil bearing areas are, Assam, Tripura, Manipur, west Bengal, Punjab, Himachal, Kutch and the Andamans.

India also possesses the all-too valuable nuclear uranium as well as some varieties of rare earths.

SOILS

Soil-types in India can be classified into three groups. The first group comprises of the alluvial, black and red soils, which are basically fertile and are arable and cultivatable.

The second group consists of the peaty and marshy, the saline and alkaline soils which are potentially arable.

The third group is the laterite and forest and hill soils, which are not at all suitable for cultivation.

The main alluvial area is found in the Indo-Gangetic plain and the Peninsular regions. The main crops are rice, sugarcane and wheat. Black soil is found in the northwestern regions and in the Deccan lava areas and Tamilnadu.

Black soil is especially suited for cotton. Red soil is particularly rich in potash and is found in northern and central India. The peaty and marshy soils are found in the Bengal deltas, Saline and alkaline soils in the semi-arid regions of Bihar, U.P, Gujarat, Punjab and Rajasthan. Desert soils are found in the minimum rain receiving areas of Gujarat, Punjab and Rajasthan. Laterite soil is common in the low hills of Andhra, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Assam.

There are two crop seasons: Kharif, Rabi. The major Kharif crops are rice, jowar, maize, cotton, sugarcane, sesame and groundnut. The Rabi crops are wheat, jowar, barley, gram, rapeseed and mustard and the summer crops are rice, maize, groundnut and some cash crops.