PRIME MINISTERS OF INDIA

PRESIDENTS OF INDIA

LEGENDS BEHIND THE INDIAN STATES

ANDHRA PRADESH

 Hyderabad, the capital of Andhra Pradesh, was once the capital of the fabulous Nizam's territory. The Andhra's  were an Aryan race. 

Their language was Telugu and it has been derived from Trilinga, meaning the three  symbols of Shiva. The region that spreads amidst three famous Shiva shrines, at Kalahasti, Srisailam and   Draksharaman was called Trilinga.

 The most glorious period in the history of the Andhras was the era of Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), who  ruled over an empire that embraced the whole of South India, famous as the Vijayanagar Empire. The Telugu  speaking areas were separated from what was the composite Madras Sate, on 1st October 1953, and Andhra   Pradesh came into being. Highly significant antiques are found in Andhra Pradesh bearing resemblance to   various stages of development from the lower Paleolithic times.

ASSAM

The ancient name of Assam was Kamarupa. According to legend, Kama, the God of love, once made an effort to arouse passion in the heart of the supreme, Shiva. The meditati

ve Shiva opened a third eye in his brow out of which leapt a flame and destroyed Kama. The compassionate God, however, later let Kama be revived.

The land where Kama got back his" rupa" or form came to be called Kamarupa.Old tribes inhabiting the area were swept away or subdued when Ahoms, a tribe that came from the upper Irravady Valley, defeated their chieftains. The domination by the Ahoms earned for the land its present name, Assam.

Internal feuds had weakened them by the early 19th century, when the Burmese overran them.Then the British began to consolidate here and revolts started against them. With the suppression of the 1857 country-wise uprising called the Sepoy Mutiny, the British were able to silence the Assamese rebels.

BIHAR

SANCHI STUPA

Bihar formed the core of the famous Magadha Empire of the Mauryan and Gupta dynasties. The name Bihar is derived from Vihara - the Buddhist monastery. The whole region is dotted with monasteries. Pataliputra, the modern Patna was the chief city through the ages.

The antiquity of Magadha is established by the fact that it is referred in the Vedas. The kings of Magadha continued to be powerful for a along time and it was the awe inspired by them that made even the Great Alexander, to retreat.

By the closing years of the 4th century B.C., Magadha had become more powerful under the Mauryan Kings, founded by Chandragupta Maurya, whose grandson was Asoka, the Great. Although Asoka's empire was vast, his impact was felt almost over the whole of Bihar. Now, Bihar is studded with monuments that bear the memory of Mahavir Jina who resurrected Jainism, and of the Buddha. Bodhgaya, where the Buddha attained enlightment is also in Bihar. Once famous all over the world, Nalanda, the University for Buddhist studies was in Bihar too.

BODH GAYA

GUJARAT

 

Before Independence, Gujarat was the State with the maximum number of princely territories beginning from the large Baroda to some small villages. The very name of the western part of Gujarat, Saurastra, means a hundred states. Its various regions were ruled by historic dynasties: the Gurjaras in the north, the Chalukyas in the south and the Maitrakas in Saurastra. Civilization had flourished in Gujarat at a very early time as excavations at Lothal reveal. The land's proximity to sea and the famous ports Braoch, Cambay, Surat, Somnath, and Dwarka became highly prosperous trading centers with the Europeans and the Arabs.

Surat is the city where the British first founded their settlement to claim the whole of India. The term Gujarat comes from the Gujaras, a tribe that settled down here in the beginning of the 5th century.

GOA

The Mahabharata mentions of Goa as Gomant. Legend says that once Parasurama, the 6th incarnation of Vishnu shot an arrow from a peak of the Sahayadri. The arrow endowed with special powers pushed the sea backwards, making Goa emerge. "Bann-Halli", meaning where the arrow fell, is the present Banaulim in Goa.

Goa has come under the rule of many historical dynasties. The Kadambas ruled the land with Chandrapura as the capital. The Bahamanis, the Mahomedan rulers of Deccan conquered Goa in 1352. Ela , on the river Mandovi became the capital. It fell in the hands of Yusuf Adil Shah, the Sultan of Bijapur. In 1510 Alfonso de Albuquerque, the second Governor of the Portuguese possessions in India, conquered it, killing the Bijapur soldiers.

In 1809, during the Napoleonic wars the British occupied Goa, but restored it to Portugal after the treaty of Vienna. In 1961, after more than 4 centuries of foreign domination, it was liberated by India.

HARYANA

Haryana is one of the areas of India, which has a rich cultural heritage. Kurushetra, where on the eve of the Mahabharata War, Sri Krishna enlightened Arjuna, through the Bhagavad Gita, is situated in Haryana. Haryana is mentioned in, as old scriptures as the Manusmriti. In the mythical era, it was the home of the Bharat dynasty. Ghaggar, the only river that flows in Haryana is believed to be the river Drishadvati mentioned in the Vedas.

The most important city of the region was Thaneswar. Towards the end of the 6th century it became the capital of the Pushyabuti dynasty. In the 8th century, the Huns frequently raided the areas. In 1014 Mahmud of Ghazni, invaded the region and plundered Thaneswar and many other small cities. Then came Babar, the founder of the Mughal dynasty, who won the battle of Panipat in Haryana in 1526. Some princely rulers till 1857, when the Sepoy Mutiny took place, ruled the region. Haryana was reconstituted as a separate state in 1966.

JAMMU AND KASHMIR

India's ancient chronicler Kalhana belonged to Kashmir. In his celebrated work, the Rajatarangini, he gives an account of the origin of Kashmir. Legend says that long long ago, Kashmir was a vast stretch of land. A demon called Jalodbhava lived in it. He went out from time to time and lay waste the lands around the lake. He had a boon as to nobody can harm unless he lived in the water.

Kasyapa, a great sage of ancient times, who knew the secret of the demon, was determined to rid the earth of him. With the help of the Gods, he had the lake struck by a mighty plough. The water was drained out and the demon lost his powers and vanished. Then emerged a wonderful land, which was called Kashyapmir, or Kashyap-mar from which the name Kashmir came into being.

Hindu Kings ruled Kashmir from the very beginning and the valley came under the rule of Asoka in the 3rd century B.C. After Asoka, a number or rulers followed and then Emperor Asoka conquered it in 1586 and the region became a part of the Mughal Empire. In 1757, Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanisthan conquered it. With popular support Maharaja Ranjit Singh took it over in 1819. Soon after the death of Ranjit Singh the British East India Company won a war with the Sikhs but sold it to the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, for a price of 75 lakh rupees. Then, Jammu and Kashmir became one state.

KARNATAKA

The Rashrakutas ruled Karnataka from the eighth to the tenth century. When the Rashtrakutas declined, three Kannada dynasties, the Yadavas of Deogiri, Kalachuris of Kalyani and the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra became powerful.

Then rose the famous Vijayanagar Empire, founded by Harihara and Bukka. The Empire was at its height during the reign of Krishnadevaraya.

Ruins of Hampi

Karnataka, also known as Kuntala Desa in ancient times, was the home of an enterprising people who carried on trade with the Egyptians and the Sumerians. There was also close communications between the cities of Karnataka and those of the Indus Valley civilization.

Karnataka became a part of the Mauryan Empire by the 4th century. A native dynasty, known as the Satavahanas or the Satakarnis took over from the Mauryans in the 1st century B.C. Simultaneously and subsequently, the Gangas and the Chalukyas ruled parts of Karnataka. The Indian music has two great traditions, the North- Indian and the Karnatic School. Hampi is supposed to be the birthplace of the Karnatic School.

The Empire weakened and ended in the 16th century. New dynasties, the Nayaks, the Pallegars and the Wadiyars came up. Haidar Ali subdued the various chieftains and he became the Sultan in the second half of the 18th century. His conflict with the rising British power ended in the death, while fighting, of his famous son, Tipu Sultan, in 1799. The state was restored to the Wadiyar Dynasty, though it remained under the British control.

KERALA

Legend says that Kerala emerged from the sea as a gift for Parasurama, the 6th incarnation of Vishnu. The length of the land is the distance covered by his axe when he hurled it.

COCHIN - JEWISH SYNAGOGUE

In the 9th century the foundation was laid for a powerful dynasty, the Cheras. After the fall of the Cheras, the local chiefs established their rule. Vascodagama arrived at Calicut in 1498. Calicut was then the capital of the Zamorins, the powerful Hindu rulers. The Dutch arrived in 1663. They outmaneuvered the Portuguese in business and soon usurped their power and influence. In the 18th century the British East India Company was able to reduce both the powerful rulers of the time.

In 1947, the state of Travancore and Cochin together with the Malabar area directly ruled by the British , formed a new state. Cranganore, Quilon, Cochin, Calicut, Kadalundi, Cannanore and Dharmadam were busy trading centers even three thousand years ago, carrying on trade with Assyrian and Babylonian Empires.

The first batch of Jews had arrived in Kerala, according to tradition, in King Solomon's ship. They had their flourishing settlement near Cochin. Kerala was also the first to welcome the Christians in India, headed by St. Thomas, the Apostle, who arrived in India within years of the death of Jesus Christ.

MADHYA PRADESH

Madhya Pradesh had been the cradle of pre-neolithic and Neolithic civilizations. Asoka, the Great, in his youth, was stationed at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh , as the Viceroy of the Maurya dynasty over the region. Later as the promoter of Buddhism, he laid the foundation for the Sanchi Stupa, one of the famous Buddhist sites.

Later the legendary king, Vikramaditya of the Gupta dynasty ruled from Ujjain. King Yasodharaman of Malwa repulsed the Gupta Empire in the 6th century. Madhya Pradesh has many monuments and sites of historical importance associated with various dynasties. Apart from the classical culture, the tribal population also has various varied cultural strains that are unchanged for several thousand years.

MAHARASTRA

Maharastra can be divided into three regions, Western Maharastra, Vidarbha and Marathwada. Vidarba was very famous in ancient times. There are numerous references to this kingdom in the Mahabharata and several other mythological works as well as in folklore. Rukmini, married to Krishna, was a princess of Vidarba.

In the 3rd century B.C., Maharastra was a part of the Mauryan Empire. As the Mauryan Empire declined, Maharastra came under the rule of various dynasties like the Satavahanas, the Traikutakas, the Vatakas, the Chalukyas and the Yadavas. Significant cultural activities continued between 3rd and 9th century A.D., during which the remarkable frescos of the Ajanta caves were made.

Towards the close of the 13th century, Maharastra came under Muslim rule. In the first part of the 17th century the great Chatrapati Shivaji emerged who gave the Marathas a new sense of unity and purpose. Early in the 19th century, Maharastra came under the British domination.

ORISSA

Orissa was famous as Kalinga, in ancient times. The Mahabharata describes it as the land inhabited by Rishis and the Brahma Purana calls it as the land blessed and adorned with all the virtues. Traces of Neolithic life are found here and the Juang tribe found here are the last surviving tribes among the vanishing descendants of the Stone Age.

An enterprising and affluent race inhabited Orissa and it carried on trade with Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Java, Cambodia and islands of the Pacific Sea. Asoka, the Great of the Mauryan Empire to take control of Kalinga, fought a bloody battle. The horrors of the war changed Asoka and he became a serious Buddhist.

Jainism and Buddhism flourished in Orissa with equal vigor. Hieun- Tsang, the famous Chinese traveler visited it in the 7th century. Bhubaneswar, Puri and Cuttack at different times served as the capitals of the Oriya Kings. The first Westerners to arrive in Orissa were the Portuguese, in 1514. The Dutch came in 1625. In the first decade of the 19th century, the British took possession of this state.

PUNJAB

Punjab is believed to be the earliest Aryan settlement in India. Before the Europeans arrived, all the raiders of India arrived only through Punjab. Darius I of Persia invaded this area in the 6th century B.C. and made it a province of his Empire. In the 4th century B.C. , Alexander, the Great invaded Punjab.

Chandragupta Maurya drove out the Greek Viceroy of the province. After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, Punjab was successively raided and occupied by the Graeco-Bactrians, Sakas, Kushans and the Huns. Mahmud of Ghazni was the first Muslim invader to enter Punjab in the 10th century. A number of other Muslim invasions followed until Babar established the Mughal rule.

Towards the later phase of the decadent Mughal power the two other invaders in whose hands the Punjab suffered were Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali. Punjab entered a new phase of history with Guru Nanak with whom began the Sikh faith (1469- 1539). Nine Gurus succeeded him. Under various historical circumstances, the Sikhs became a militant community.

The conflict between the Sikhs and the Mughals was a long story with amazing resistance showed by the Sikhs. Punjab was at its peak when King Ranjit singh ruled during 1780-1839. After his death the two wars with the rising British power gave a setback to their strength in Punjab. The British took over the Province in 1849. The whole of Punjab is strewn with monuments and places bearing the memory of the freedom struggles.

RAJASTHAN

An older name of Rajasthan is Rajputana, the land of the Rajputs. Although many other racial groups are there in the state, the martial Rajputs have dominated its history through the centuries. They trace their descent to the royal dynasties mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Sisodias, the Rathors, and the Kachchwas belong to the Solar line; The Bhatis and the Tanwars come from the Lunar line. The Solankis, the Parmars, the Pratihars and the Chauhans are said to have originated from a Yajna or sacrificial fire.

In the 12th century, the Rajput princes fought and checked the Muslim invasions for long. In 1526 Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire came. Sangram singh of Mewar defied him. Mewar valiantly resisted till the time of Jahangir. Trouble started because of the religious intolerance of Aurangazeb. Then, the Mughal power declined and Rajputana could not enjoy freedom due to the attacks from the Maratha powers. This made it easy for the British to step in as the protector of the princely states of Rajasthan, 20 in all and annexed them. The princes allowed the merger of their states into the Union of India on the nation's achievement of freedom from the British.

SIKKIM

Legend says, that following some occult sign a celebrated Tibetan Lama came to Sikkim in 1641 and met two other Lamas at Yuk- Sam, meaning, "the meeting place of the three Lamas" . Together they searched out the man destined to find a ruling dynasty over the region; he was Phutong Namgyal, the great-grandson of Guru Tashi. The three Lamas crowned him the ruler of Sikkim.

Later, though Chogyal was the chief, it was India who appointed the Prime Minister of the state and was responsible for its defence. In 1975, to fulfill the popular urge of the people of Sikkim, it was made a regular state, the 22nd of the Republic of India.

TAMILNADU

Civilization flourished in Tamilnadu long before the beginning of the Christian era. The Cheras, the cholas and the Pandyas ruled parts of the modern Tamilnadu. Thanjavur and Thiruchirapalli were identified with the Cholas and the Tirunelveli and Madurai area was identified with the Pandyas. While the Cholas first ruled from Uraiyur and then from Kaveripattinam, the Pandyas ruled from Madurai.

A third great dynasty of Tamilnadu was the Pallava dynasty of Kanchi that came to prominence in the 4th century A.D. Prosperous ports extended Tamilnadu's commerce to distant countries. The Kural by Thiruvalluvar, one of the greatest works of Indian literature written 2000 years ago, shows the growth and prosperity of Tamil in ancient times.

PONDICHERRY

Pondicherry, world famous as the seat of Sri Aurobindo and the Mother, had a mystic heritage rooted in a remote past. Sage Agastya, who came from the north to South, is believed to have established his Ashram here. Though the present name comes from "Puddu Cherri", meaning New Village, it had a more ancient name, Vedapuri, suggesting that the place was known for Vedic learning.

Excavations at Arikamedu on the outskirts of the city prove that there was a Roman settlement here and regular commerce was carried on between the Port of Pondicherry and the Roman cities. The French came here following the Portuguese and the Danes, and took root here. In 1693, the Dutch bought the area from the French ruler of Gingee. Four years later, following a treaty, the French took possession of the city, with Francois Martin for its administrator.

In the 18th century, in the wake of the wars between England and France, the English in India tried to dislodge the French from Pondicherry. The city changed hands several times. Finally, the French took over in 1816 and continued here till its merger with the rest of India in 1954.

UTTAR PRADESH

The antiquity of the civilizations, which had flourished in this soil, is well established by excavations at places like Hastinapur, Kanuaj, Kaushambi and Mathura. Many great dynasties ruled the region in mythical times. The greatest among them were the Ikshvakus. Sri Ramachandra hailed from this dynasty, ruling from Ayodhya. Historically it was a part of the Mauryan Empire. After Asoka there were kings like Pushyamitra, Kaniskha, Samudragupta, Harshavardhana, Yashovarman, Mihirbhoja and Mahipala. They all belonged to various dynasties.

In 1309, Alauddin Khilji conquered a part of the region. Muslim rulers then followed. In the 16th century, the Lodi kings made Agra their capital. Soon Babar arrived and several wars followed, and then the region became a part of the Mughal Empire. The British through the East India Company, took over the area in the 18th century. In 1857, the Sepoy Mutiny took place in a large scale in this region.

WEST BENGAL

Bengal is the anglicized form of Banga, the ancient name of a part of the region. The other part was called Gauda. Both were the kingdoms in the Mauryan and the Gupta Empire. After several dynasties followed with a lot of uncertainness, the Pala kings ruled the region from the 8th century to the 12th century in a more peaceful atmosphere. In early 13th century, a Turkish General Muhammad Bhaktiyar invaded Bengal. The Buddhists of Bengal persecuted him. Intrigues marked the Muslim rule over Bengal for a long time with a brief spell of Hindu rule in the area.

In the 15th century, Sri Chaitanya, the great Vaishnav prophet appeared. In the 16th century Bengal came under the Mughal rule. In 1757, the young Nawab of Bengal, Sirajuddaula, who was disgusted with the British rule, clashed with them at the Battle of Plassey. Under Clive's leadership, the Company won because of the betrayal of Sirajuddaula's commander- in- chief, Mr. Jaffar's betrayal of his master. Siraj was soon assassinated. With the company's support, Jaffar occupied the throne of Bengal. But he was soon deposed and the Company snatched the powers from the weak successors of Jaffar. At last, Warren Hastings obliged the Nawab to retire and became the administrator of Bengal and later became the Governor- General of British India.

The sons of Bengal played a prominent part in the resurrection of India. The English education in India, started in Bengal and with the suggestion of Raja Rammohan Roy, the first English College was also set up in Calcutta in 1817.

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

CELLULAR JAIL

In the 16th century, a settlement was gradually established at Port Blair in 1789. Then the establishment was shifted to the north in 1792 and then it was closed in 1796. Shipwrecks were recorded between 1796 and 1858 and finally a penal settlement was established in 1858.

The Chinese traveler Marco Polo who passed through these islands in 1290 calls them the "Angamanian Islands". Friar Odoric another European traveler in 1322 refers to the people of these islands as "Cannibals" who ate each other. But Nicolo Conti who arrived at these islands in 1440, calls these islands as the islands of Gold. 

The colonizing European powers began coverting these islands from the 18th century. In 1869, they came to the possession of the British from the Dutch. For the British, the islands were for a penal settlement. The dreaded Prison was the Cellular Jail, now a national monument. Once sent there, the prisoners were likely to die than turn back due to the unhealthy conditions that prevailed there.

INDIA'S ENCOUNTER WITH THE WEST & POST INDEPENDENCE

The Portuguese were the first to arrive in India. Vascodagama's sea-route opened the way for the colonization of India.

He landed in Calicut in 1498 with a fanatical zeal for the Catholic religion and established his fort in Cochin. The Dutch put an end to the Portuguese colonization by capturing Fort Cochin from them. The French continued the commercial career with Pondicherry on the Coramandel coast as the center. In course of time the English East India Company chartered in 1600 established their settlements in Madras(1639), Bombay(1668) and Calcutta (1698).

The French also established trading post in Pondicherry near Tamilnadu and the Portuguese in Goa, but they did not depart even after the British have left India. By the beginning of the 19th Century, the Company regime was firmly entrenched in India. Governor General, Wesley's Forward Policy and Subsidiary Alliances and Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse and Annexations and the introduction of greased Cartridges which hurt the sentiments of the Hindu sepoys all precipitated into " The Great Mutiny of 1857 " called the First War of Independence.

Energetic leaders like Tantia Tope and Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi created immortal Epics of courage and Self-sacrifice. The death of the East India Company announced in 1858 by Queen Victoria signified the end of major conquests and the beginning of an era of responsible colonial Government in India.

Lord Macaulay was responsible for the introduction of English education in India but it had a Professional goal. The British interests in trade and profit resulted in expansion of iron and coal mining, the development of tea, coffee and cotton growing, the construction of India's vast network of railways and also massive revolutions took place in the field of agriculture too. Many social reform movements cropped due to this education. The BRAHMA SAMAJ founded by RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY fought against SATI, the inhuman practice of burning the wife in the funeral pyre of her husband.

The Theosophical Society in Adayar, Madras founded by ANNIE BEASANT championed the cause of home rule in India. SWAMI VIVEKANANDA, the man with a modern vision founded the Ramakrishna Mission for world wide missionary work. Sree Narayana Guru of Kerala fought against the caste system especially in Kerala. By the end of the 19th century there were a number of organizations in different parts of the country engaged in reforming the country and rejuvenating the Indian culture.

GANDHI AND INDEPENDENCE

A.O.HUME, a retired English civil servant founded the INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS IN 1885. Later in the Surat Conference of the Congress there developed a cleavage between the moderates headed by GOKHALE and the extremists lead by TILAK.

With the new leadership of GANDHI at the end of the world war, the Congress became more belligerent. Equipped with a Degree in Law from England, Gandhi was able to kindle a mass movement in India.He established ashrams in SABARMATI and WARDHA to follow his swadeshi ideals.

Jail -going for breaking the British law became a respectable thing for the Indians. The JALLIANWALLA BAGH massacre in 1919,the DANDI MARCH in 1935 for making salt and the QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT in 1942 were some of the highlights of the freedom struggle.

World war 11 brought about a great change in India. There was a powerful national upsurge, since the Congress exploited the problems that the British Empire faced due to the world war, to demand a definite promise of Independence.

Following the end of the war in 1945, the British took steps to grant INDEPENDENCE in 1947.The British Empire was completely shattered after the war and their first priority was restructuring their own economy, which was in shambles. The entire nation saw it as the victory of the Gandhian strategy of NON-VIOLENCE. But it was a mixed package since the freedom at midnight was tied with the partition of the country under communal lines. Large-scale communal riots broke out in both the countries following Independence. Then followed the tragic death of the great Mahatma in the hands of a Hindu fanatic, which marked the end of an era of unity and idealism. Then Ambedkar framed the constitution in 1950.

A lot of economic progress was registered with Nehru as the Prime minister through the FIVE-YEAR PLANS. Later the Congress gave great emphasis to the Parliamentary system with a multi party system. During the cold war Nehru framed a cautious neutral foreign policy.

There were clashes with Pakistan in 1965 and in 1971, over the intractable Kashmir dispute and the other one over Bangladesh. A border war was also fought with China in 1962 in the north Eastern Frontier Agency. India continues to dispute sovereignty over these areas still.

INDIA WITH INDIRA

India's main problem is the personality cult it has developed with its rulers from independence. There had been three Prime Ministers, Nehru, his daughter, Indira and her son Rajiv. Indira won the 1966 general elections but faced serious opposition and unrest in 1975, when she was forced to declare an emergency. During the emergency, Indira was able to control inflation and boost the economy and increase the efficiency. On the negative side, political opponents were sent to prison. India's judicial system became a puppet in her arms and the press was also fettered.

In 1977, another general election was called for. The Congress party led by Indira was bundled off and the Janata People's Party came to power. But it did not have any cohesive power.

Its leader, Moraji Desai, was more interested in protecting cows, banning alcohol and getting his daily dose of urine than coming to the problems faced by the country. The Janata fell back in 1979 and the 1980 elections brought back the Congress to power. But by then Indira's charisma began to fade due to many communal riots and the upheavals in Punjab. In 1984 her Sikh bodyguards assassinated her.

This was in reprisal for her decision to send the army to flush the Sikh radicals from the Golden Temple in Amritsar. Meanwhile, Indira's son Mr. Rajiv Gandhi, an Indian Airlines Pilot became the next heir to the throne and quickly got an overwhelming majority.

RAJIV GANDHI

Under his regime foreign investment and use of modern technology were encouraged. Then he was dogged by the Bofors scandal. Bribes were allegedly paid to members of his government to secure a contract to supply Swedish heavy artillery to the Indian army.

THE NINETIES

After the November 1989 elections, though Rajiv's party was the single largest one, it was unable to form a new government of its own. As a result, the National Front that constituted many regional parties came to power with V.P Singh as the Prime Minister. It didn't last for long and fresh elections were called for. It was during the election campaign in Tamilnadu, that a Human bomb supposedly carried by an LTTE sympathizer assassinated Raja Gandhi. Meanwhile the septuagenarian Narasimha Rao led the Congress party to victory.

After several years languishing behind trade barriers and somewhat unrealistic currency exchange rate, the economy got a boost under the new Finance Minister, Manmohan Singh. He made the momentous step of partially floating the rupee against a basket of hard currencies. Then came the potentially explosive conflict between the Muslims and the Hindus, for which Ayodhya became the focus

The Hindus call this small town in U.P as the birthplace of Rama. During the Mughal rule several of the Hindu temples in the city were destroyed and mosques were built. On one such site was the Babri Masjid before which there was a Hindu temple. In December 1992, rioting followed as Hindu fundamentalists brought down the Babri Masjid. The 1996 elections were a disaster for the Congress, being defeated by the BJP. But that government lasted only for two weeks and was replaced by a coalition of regional parties called the United Front, and headed by Deve Gowda. In April 1997 he was replaced by I.K.Gujral.In the1999 elections the BJP and its allies claimed majority and are ruling the country, with Mr. Atal Behari Vajpayee as the Prime Minister.

The current President Kocheri Raman Narayanam is the first Dalit, ever to have held the post.While the Central government is strong, the prospects of regional autonomy are getting brighter day-by-day. There is a lot of consensus on vital issues like liberalization in economy and decentralization of power in administration.

The Judiciary has proved many times that it is the watchdog of our Constitution. The fourth Estate is also alert and active. On the brink of the third millennium India is poised for a new area of economic progress and social justice that the Indians are looking forward with a lot of confidence vowing to adjust with nature.

MUSLIM INVASIONS

Tthe Arabs who took to Islam acted as middlemen between the East and the West. They carried new inventions like Gunpowder, Compass, Paper, Tea and Printing Technology to Europe from China via India.

Mahmud of Ghazni and Mohammed Ghori and their fanatical followers poured down across the Khyber and Bolan passes of the Himalayan ranges into the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains. The Hindu civilization meanwhile passed its prime by the 10th century of the Christian era. Shankaracharya was the last great philosopher of Hindu India. Artistic inspiration died up after 7th to 8th centuries so nothing like the Ajanta was created afterwards. The Last great Poet in Sanskrit was Kalidasa. Universities like Taxila and Nalanda stopped attracting brilliant minds from all over the world.

The feudal decline and the consequent degeneration of society paved way for foreign intervention. Mohmud Ghazni carried out 17 raids in northern India, but this shock treatment did not produce any unified plan of resistance among the Indian rulers. With the best horses the Afghans had no natural barriers once they passed the Khyber-Bolan passes. Alberuni, a great Arab Scholar was fascinated by the "Hindu" Indian thought .He recorded the Hindu_Arabic cultural interaction in many of his works.Arab scholars adopted and popularized the Hindu Numerals, which are now called ARABIC NUMERALS the world over, 1including the concept of ZERO.

Conquest of India from the northwestern route by the Muslim dynasties is summarized and given below according to chronology.

712 A.D.	Arab conquest of Sind.
997- 1030 A.D.	Raids of Mahmud of Ghazni.
1192 A.D.	Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithiviraj Chauhan.
1206 A.D.	Slave dynasty established by qutb-ud-din -Aibak.
1296- 1316 A.D.	Ala-ud-din Khilji's reign.
1325- 51 A.D.	Muhammad bin Tughlak's reign.
1414- 50 A.D.	Rule of Sayyids at Delhi.
1451 A.D.	Accession of Bahlul Lodi
1526 A.D.	First Battle of Panipat. Babur establishes the Mughal Empire.

THE SULTANS:

QUTB MINAR - NEW DELHI The Delhi Sultanate came around 1210, under the rule of Qubtuddin Aibek and continued till the foundation to the Mughal Empire was laid by Babar in 1526.He was followed by Iltumish who completed the QUTB MINAR which stands on the outskirts of Delhi. A number of Sultans followed, but each rule was punctuated by bloody wars. Then followed the Tughlugs who transferred the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in the South and they also introduced leather currency, which was a failure. By the 20th century the Muslims after 800 years of domination could convert only 25% of the population of India to Islam. The Muslims could not rule without Hindu assistance, so many Hindus were inducted into the bureaucracy. This resulted in the development of a new common language, Urdu, which is now spoken in most parts of Northern India.

SOUTH INDIA IN HISTORY

In the absence of large-scale invasion, South India maintained equilibrium till the advent of British rule. The agrarian integration took place in South India in the beginning of the second millennium. The agricultural surplus in the Kaveri valley region projected Tanjore ,the Chola Capital under kings like Raja Raja, Rajendra and Kulothunga. In the 9th century of the Christian era great Tamil works like CHILAPADIKARAM, MANIMEGALAI AND JIVAKA CHINTAMANI were made. Since the west coast of India had a world monopoly of pepper, teak and spices, it attracted a lot of western adventurers.

Between 1000 and 1300 AD, the Hoysala Empire, which had centers in Belur, Halebid, and Somnathpur was at its peak. Meanwhile in northern Karnataka the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by the famous brothers Harihara and Bukka. Its capital was Hampi and perhaps it was the strongest Hindu kingdom.

MUGHAL RULE

AKBAR'S MAUSOLEUM

This rule started in India with the arrival of Babar, a refuge prince from Samarkhand. Akbar, the Great, followed him. Birbal, the court wit and Tansen, the musician became legendary figures during Akbar's period. His religious views can be considered to be the forerunner of the ideas of Mahatma of our times.

Fatepur Sikri the monumental work of Akbar speaks of his vigor and dynamism. Akbar was probably the greatest of the Mughal Emperors, for he, not only had great military power but he was also a man of culture and wisdom.

Jahangir (1605-27) and Shahjahan (1527-59) who succeeded Akbar were both pleasure seekers, caring more for power and wealth than reforms and justice. The Mughal Empire is a unique phenomenon in the history of India and it was autocratic to the core. The Mughals had a great passion for monumental architectures. It didn't take long for revolts to take place on all sides and with Aurangazeb's death in 1707; the Mughal Empire's fortune began to decline sharply.

VARIOUS INDIAN CIVILIZATIONS

Indus Valley Civilization:

India's first major civilization flourished for 1000 years from around 2500 B.C, along the Indus river valley, which is now in Pakistan.
It began to decline around 1700 B.C. The major cities were Mohenjadaro and Harappa and lesser ones were like the city of Lothal, which is now near Ahmedabad, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Ropar in Punjab. Lothal was specially significant, since it was a port town.

The people of the Indus valley civilization were multi ethnic. The skeletal remains found in extensive excavations suggest this. They were an urban civilization with remarkable ability and good planning. Priests who dictated social modes then ruled the society. Origin of Hinduism belongs to this civilization. Image worship was also practiced. Worship of the Mother Goddess later called Kali and that of a prehistoric form of Shiva were followed. Animals were considered to be sacred and the most prominent among them was the Bull. Other animals that were domesticated include the buffalo, the camel and the elephant. Besides cotton, several types of cereals were grown and stored in extensive granaries.

Trade was carried on with the Persian Gulf region and Mesopotamia. Ornaments of gold, silver, copper, several alloys and precious stones were used. There were also flourishing art activities and crafts grew well. A well-developed sewage system and that of a good garbage collection system were undertaken according to the excavations that took place in the city of Harappa. They had a script, which is totally undecipherable even now. The demise of this great civilization is unknown till date.

 
Early invasions:

The Aryan invaders swept south from central Asia between 1500 and 2000 B.C.They later controlled the whole of north India and pushed the original inhabitants further south. They were essentially a pastoral people with a flair for poetry, philosophical speculation and elaborate rituals. During this period, the sacred books like the Vedas were written. Caste system came into vogue to establish the status of the priests. Strict taboos were established regarding marriages.

During the same period, Darius, the Persian King (521-486 B.C) annexed the Punjab and Sind, but he couldn't go any further. Alexander, the Great, marched from Greece in 326 B.C, but his troops refused to march beyond the Beas River and he turned back without extending his power in India. Buddhism rose around 500 B.C contemporaneously with Jainism and became a great challenge to Hinduism. The appeal of both these religions was that they opposed the Vedas and condemned casteism.
The Mauryas:

ASOKA EMBLEM

After Alexander's departure Chandragupta Maurya came to power in 321 B.C. From Patna as it's capital, the Empire spread itself across the whole of Northern India. The Mauryans set up a rigid and well-organized Empire. The Empire reached it's peak under Emperor Asoka, who converted to Buddhism in 262 B.C. Asokan Edicts and pillars can be seen in Delhi, Gujarat, Orissa, Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh and Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh. Art and culture flourished during his period. His famous Pillar has been taken as the National symbol or Emblem of India Under Asoka, the Mauryan Empire controlled more of India than any ruler before or after his period. Asoka also maintained cordial relations with neighboring countries like Sri Lanka were he sent people to lay the foundation for Buddhism. After his death in 232 B.C., the Empire began to collapse till 184 B.C.
The Guptas:

 

AJANTA PAINTING

A number of Empires rose and fell after the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire. In 319 A.D, Chandragupta 11 founded the Gupta Empire. The Imperial Guptas gave way to the Later Guptas in 455 A.D and the Gupta period continued till 606 A.D.Artwork flourished during this period with some fine works done in Ajanta, Ellora, Sanchi and Sarnath. During this period "Hinayana " form of Buddhism was prevalent, where the Buddha was represented by symbols like stupas, footprints, etc. Towards the end of the Gupta Empire, Buddhism and Jainism began to decline and Hinduism began to rise in popularity.

 
After 1000 A.D:

During A.D 1000 there were a number of competing regional rulers in India. Feudalism continued since the political structure was based on the economic system of production and distribution. During the Gupta period there was a huge cauldron of conflicting races that practiced crude rites like sati and waging wars for the sake of family honor. In later years they came to be called, as Raiputs and they became the banner-bearers of "Hindu" religion and culture. Astrology, a Pseudo-science for predicting the future based on planetary movements gained importance. Women were suppressed and freedom of free movement and behavior were looted from them. But there was a growing class of women called DEVADASIS or servants of God who were dedicated to temple service. They were highly educated and were well versed in art and literature. 

KEY YEARS IN THE HISTORY OF INDIA

2500-1500 B.C	:	Indus Valley civilization.
1500-200 B.C	:	Aryan civilization.
2000-1000 B.C	:	Composition of the Upanishads and the great Epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
600-500 B.C	:	Mahavir and Buddha lay down the principles of Jainism and Buddhism.
326 B.C	:	Alexander, The Great invades India
320 B.C	:	Chandragupta Maurya finds the Mauryan Dynasty.
273 B.C	:	Asoka ascends the throne of Magadha.
261 B.C	:	The Great Kalinga War that transforms Asoka.
60 B.C	:	Rise of the Satavahana Dynasty.
1-100 A.D	:	Jews and Apostle St.Thomas arrive in the Malabar Coast.
78A.D	:	The Saka era begins.
120-144A.D	:	Rule of the Kushan king, Kaniskha.
320A.D	:	Chandragupta 1 finds the Gupta Dynasty
360 A.D	:	Samudragupta establishes a large Empire-the whole of northern India up to the Deccan.
375- 413A.D	:	Reign of Chandragupta 11,the golden age of Indian culture and literature.
405-11A.D	:	Fahien visits India.
1000 A.D	:	Founding of the Chola empire by Rajaraja Chola.
1026 A.D	:	Mahmud of Ghazni ransacks the Somnath temple.
1192 A.D	:	Muhammad Ghori defeats Prithiviraj. Paves way for Muslim rule.
1206 A.D	:	Qutb-ud-din Aibak establishes Slave Dynasty inDelhi.
1288 A.D	:	Marco polo visits India.
1290 A.D	:	Fall of the Slave Dynasty; Beginning of the Khilji Dynasty.
1483-1530 A.D	:	Reign of Mughal emperor Babur.
1498 AD	:	Vascodagama lands at Calicut.
1469-1538 A.D	:	Time of Guru Nanak,the founder of Sikkhism.
1510 A.D	:	Goa captured by Portuguese.
1526 A.D	:	First battle of Panipat.Babar defeats the Lodis and establishes Mughal rule.
1556 A.D	:	Accession of Akbar.
1600 A.D	:	East India Company formed.
1632-1653 A.D	:	Shah Jahan builds the Taj Mahal.
1664 A.D	:	Shivaji becomes king in Delhi.
1739 A.D	:	Nadir Shah invades Delhi.
1742 A.D	:	French rule consolidated in Pondicherry.
1757 A.D	:	Battle of Plassey.
1831 A.D	:	Ranjit Singh mobilizes the power of Sikhs.
1834-35 A.D	:	Lord William Bentick becomes the first Governor General of India.
1853 A.D	:	First Railway between Bombay and Thana.
1857 A.D	:	The Sepoy Mutiny.
1858 A.D	:	Government of India passes from East India Company to the British Crown.
1885 A.D	:	Indian National Congress born.
1906 A.D	:	Founding of the Muslim League.
1911 A.D	:	Capital of India shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.
1920 A.D	:	Non-cooperation movement begins.
1930 A.D	:	Mahatma Gandhi leads the Dandi march in Ahmedabad.
1931A.D	:	Inauguration of New Delhi.
1947 A.D	:	India gets freedom. Nehru is India's new Prime Minister.
1948 A.D	:	Mahatma Gandhi is assassinated in Delhi.
1950 A.D	:	India becomes a Republic.
1965 A.D	:	Hindi proclaimed the National language.
1966-1977 A.D	:	Indira Gandhi is India's Prime Minister.
1965-1971 A.D	:	Indo- Pakistan clashes.
1962 A.D	:	Indo-China war.
1966 A.D	:	Indira Gandhi comes to power.
1975 A.D	:	Emergency declared by Indira Gandhi.
1984 A.D	:	Indira Gandhi assassinated by her bodyguard. Rajiv Gandhi, Indira's son takes over.
1989 A.D	:	General elections, V.P. Singh becomes the Prime Minister.
1991 A.D	:	Rajiv Gandhi assassinated during election campaign, Narasimha Rao becomes the Prime minister.
1992 A.D	:	Babri Masjid brought down. Riots followed in the whole of North India.
1996 A.D	:	National Front comes to power.
1999 A.D	:	BJP wins the elections and are ruling the country till date.
2000 A.D	:	US President Bill Clinton makes groundbreaking visit to India to improve ties.
2001 A.D	:	Massive earthquakes hit western state of Gujarat, leaving at least 30,000 dead.
2002 A.D	:	Retired Scientist and architect of India's missile programme APJ Abdul Kalam elected president.
2003 A.D	:	India, Pakistan agree to resume direct air links and to allow overflights.
2004 A.D	:	Congress wrestles power from the BJP headed by Sonia Gandhi. Manmohan takes in the Prime Minsiters Seat. Former Prime Minister PV Narasimha Rao dies, aged 83.